Our RESEARCH
MidCoast Growers Network undertakes applied social research on topics within the broad scope of our mission and aims, and makes the research findings available to growers and to the wider public
Growers
(Photo: Marnie Johnson)
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Reviewing the literature and and making the findings of published material available to our growers
Growers think about success for their gardens and fields over the long term. This means preparing for, and dealing with, challenges as they arise, and finding ways to adapt, innovate, and improve. Many publications are available to help them in this quest. These publications provide all kinds of growers with insights, ideas and resources, as well as contributing to a sense of community. Many articles are based on personal and shared experiences. They provide practical advice based on learning-by-doing. There is also material that is published as part of the scientific (including social science) literature. |
Many growers are avid readers of the gardening literature, and we all have our favourite magazines, books, blogs and websites from which we obtain gardening inspiration, information and examples to draw on. In addition, of course, we learn a lot by sharing and discussing things with fellow growers.
Midcoast Growers Network aims to supplement these sources of knowledge by making published material more accessible to local communities. In the 'Our research' section of our website, we review published articles, including scientific ones, and present useful and applicable findings in narrative form. In all of our reviews, the articles that are drawn on are referenced in-text and listed alphabetically in a list of references at the end.
Midcoast Growers Network aims to supplement these sources of knowledge by making published material more accessible to local communities. In the 'Our research' section of our website, we review published articles, including scientific ones, and present useful and applicable findings in narrative form. In all of our reviews, the articles that are drawn on are referenced in-text and listed alphabetically in a list of references at the end.
Polblue Swamp at Barrington Tops (photo: Ron Woods)
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Growing in a changing climate: What does the literature say? |
This review of the literature aims to make more accessible to MidCoast communities some of the rapidly developing understandings of gardening in a warming world. Several databases were used to search for published articles, which were reviewed and synthesised. The findings from this research are presented in five sections:
This research was carried out by Ron Woods in 2020, and updated in January 2022.
- Challenges for growers in light of climate change
- Resilience - the ability to bounce back
- Addressing the challenges of a changing climate - adaptation, promoting resilience, mitigation
- Three Australian case studies
- Conclusion
This research was carried out by Ron Woods in 2020, and updated in January 2022.
Key insights from this review of the national and international literature:
Gardening in a changing climate is a definite topic of interest. The knowledge base is increasing. Many texts are freely available online.
A consistent theme among the writers is the benefit of openness - being open to trying new things in the garden, to sharing frustrations and experiences with others, to knowing plants' limits, to allowing nature itself to guide you.
In the face of increasing unpredictability, four key things to think about and focus on in a holistic way are temperature, rainfall, pollinators and bushfires. Consider ways in which these interact to influence all aspects of growing - garden design, plant selection, soil, water, wind, biodiversity (including new invasive species), community, markets, etc... and adapt.
Several researchers, writers and commentators engage with the idea of climate resilience. A useful approach is to see this not as something that is either there or not there, but rather as a quality that emerges when needed. Research is ongoing to help understand what the best conditions are for resilience to emerge.
Gardening in a changing climate is a definite topic of interest. The knowledge base is increasing. Many texts are freely available online.
A consistent theme among the writers is the benefit of openness - being open to trying new things in the garden, to sharing frustrations and experiences with others, to knowing plants' limits, to allowing nature itself to guide you.
In the face of increasing unpredictability, four key things to think about and focus on in a holistic way are temperature, rainfall, pollinators and bushfires. Consider ways in which these interact to influence all aspects of growing - garden design, plant selection, soil, water, wind, biodiversity (including new invasive species), community, markets, etc... and adapt.
Several researchers, writers and commentators engage with the idea of climate resilience. A useful approach is to see this not as something that is either there or not there, but rather as a quality that emerges when needed. Research is ongoing to help understand what the best conditions are for resilience to emerge.
1. Challenges for growers in light of climate change
Around the world, local communities are living with tangible reminders that we have set our climate on what may be an irreversible course. Coastal homes in places like Alaska are slowly sinking into the sea, potable water has become scarcer in regions such as western Africa, island nations are seeking resettlement, and extreme weather events have become more frequent and costly. (Aldrich 2018: 21)
Around the world, local communities are living with tangible reminders that we have set our climate on what may be an irreversible course. Coastal homes in places like Alaska are slowly sinking into the sea, potable water has become scarcer in regions such as western Africa, island nations are seeking resettlement, and extreme weather events have become more frequent and costly. (Aldrich 2018: 21)
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There is growing consensus that climate change will aggravate several of the existing challenges facing small-scale food producers and gardeners more generally. This is primarily due to its role in triggering more extreme weather conditions, and changing the pattern of vector-borne diseases (Nkrumah 2018).
As a result of climate change, growers face problems that include:
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Cobark River (photo: Ron Woods)
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For those living in coastal areas, the global warming-linked rise in sea level poses particular challenges (Albert et al. 2018).
A warmer climate contributes to the intensity of natural occurrences such as floods, and ‘there is widespread recognition that substantial changes to the climate across Australia will have profound impacts on … current systems and patterns of food production, distribution, and consumption’ (Burton et al 2013: 60). Localised, seasonal food production may again become as important as it always had been for previous generations (Helen McPherson Smith Trust n.d.).
A warmer climate contributes to the intensity of natural occurrences such as floods, and ‘there is widespread recognition that substantial changes to the climate across Australia will have profound impacts on … current systems and patterns of food production, distribution, and consumption’ (Burton et al 2013: 60). Localised, seasonal food production may again become as important as it always had been for previous generations (Helen McPherson Smith Trust n.d.).
2. Resilience
Adapting to the impacts of climate change on all forms of growing brings to the fore considerations of resilience. One way of describing it is: '...the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure and feedbacks, and therefore identity, that is, the capacity to change in order to maintain the same identity'. (Folke et al., cited in Taylor and Lovell 2014: 292).
Adapting to the impacts of climate change on all forms of growing brings to the fore considerations of resilience. One way of describing it is: '...the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure and feedbacks, and therefore identity, that is, the capacity to change in order to maintain the same identity'. (Folke et al., cited in Taylor and Lovell 2014: 292).
photo - Stef Garland
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Other ways of describing resilience include:
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Qualities that contribute to resilience include ‘diversity, self-organisation, adaptive learning, and feedback’ (Okvat and Zautra 2011: 376). For example:
- Diversity in all its forms – social, economic, biological, and landscape diversity – presents systems with more options to respond to disturbance, and enables them to more readily embrace change (Chan 2014: 94).
- Self-organisation and adaptive learning emerges when space is created for communication, information-sharing and deliberate co-learning (Okvat and Zautra 2011). This occurs in community gardens, and through the activities of other growers, such as in garden clubs, seed saving and sharing groups, and specialist interest groups.
- Positive feedback loops emerge when the natural, human, social, financial and physical attributes of localities are brought together, integrated and managed through initiatives and projects (Taylor and Lovell 2014: 292).
From a grower's perspective, resilience emerges on the basis of all the other things that are happening to people, to their gardens and lands, and to their surrounds. Resilience is an emergent property of:
All of these can work together to ‘buffer the household and community from social, ecological, and economic disturbance’ (Taylor and Lovell 2014: 293).
- Natural environmental outcomes such as the the level and preservation of biodiversity;
- Social outcomes such as the development of garden-centred social networks; and
- Economic outcomes such as the exchange of seeds and seedlings, food, knowledge, and other resources.
All of these can work together to ‘buffer the household and community from social, ecological, and economic disturbance’ (Taylor and Lovell 2014: 293).
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Focusing on resilience amongst community gardeners, McVey, Nash and Stasbie (2018) investigated the motivations and experiences of people based on their respective involvement with three different community gardens in Edinburgh, Scotland. The research showed: ‘Community gardens grow much more than just food, they grow community’ (McVey et al 2018: 40). |
photo - Ron Woods
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The study showed that development of resilience emerged through factors that included:
Chan (2014: 99) agrees that community gardens contain within themselves the ‘cognitive and biological means for facilitating resilience and response capacity by protecting biocultural diversity and social-ecological memories’. Friendships, networks, and working together on the basis of a shared love of gardening all contribute to the resilience of communities, because these are strengths that can be drawn upon in difficult times.
- Participation that also led to often unexpected experiences of social bonding
- Gardeners viewing these gardens as able to address a wide range of community issues
- Reclaiming unused common land, which became symbolic of community empowerment, and of gaining a sense of community control.
Chan (2014: 99) agrees that community gardens contain within themselves the ‘cognitive and biological means for facilitating resilience and response capacity by protecting biocultural diversity and social-ecological memories’. Friendships, networks, and working together on the basis of a shared love of gardening all contribute to the resilience of communities, because these are strengths that can be drawn upon in difficult times.
photo: Kara Woodward
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3. Addressing the challenges of a changing climate
‘…plants don’t respond to averages, they respond to extremes.’ (Cregg 2017) Adaptation Growers’ adaptations to climate change can be viewed as the steps they take to foster their own resilience, as well as the resilience-generating capacities of their gardens. |
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Temperatures have increased in Australia over the past century, and this implies that regions are experiencing climates previously found at latitudes further north. For example, Sydney’s climate is now roughly what it used to be halfway to Coffs Harbour (Lowe 2017).
Plant species often react by migrating to better conditions, but this is not an option for gardeners. Instead, it is the growers have to innovate and adapt. |
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Growers can adapt by:
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Particular attention could be paid to the ways in which gardens are situated in the context of the broader green spaces in their surrounds. People are reliant on natural processes to provide the essentials of life, such as food, water, places that are suitable for living, and cultural and aesthetic value; these benefits have been termed ecosystem services (Clarke 2014). Ecosystem services (the 'services' provided by nature, such as photosynthesis and pollination) and the availability of habitat (which contributes to biodiversity) are improved when green spaces are intertwined.
The development of community gardens can also be targeted towards towns, neighbourhoods and districts that would benefit most from having a steady supply of locally produced food (Anderson et al 2019: 678).
Gardens help to reduce runoff when they provide the means for water to infiltrate the soil. Other water management approaches include gardening for minimal water use; and the collection and storage of rainwater (Greenbelt Foundation and Royal Botanical Gardens 2018: 4). These are discussed in detail in our 'Tips and techniques' for Midcoast growers.
The development of community gardens can also be targeted towards towns, neighbourhoods and districts that would benefit most from having a steady supply of locally produced food (Anderson et al 2019: 678).
Gardens help to reduce runoff when they provide the means for water to infiltrate the soil. Other water management approaches include gardening for minimal water use; and the collection and storage of rainwater (Greenbelt Foundation and Royal Botanical Gardens 2018: 4). These are discussed in detail in our 'Tips and techniques' for Midcoast growers.
To promote biodiversity, consider how your garden can help to provide food, water, shelter and space for other living things, and what kinds of plantings you can do to encourage this.
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Promoting resilience
While gardeners are adapting to climate change, they are also contributing to the social and ecological resilience of their communities and countries. The community role they play may be overlooked, despite the inherent promise of gardens as being able collectively to provide valued ecosystem services, such as the provision of food and providing habitat for birds and insects. Other services provided by gardens include increased storm water retention,building interpersonal trust, and facilitating community participation. Taken together, these services contribute to promoting resilience to climate change. |
Opening of the Gloucester Community Garden in 2021 (photo - supplied by GCG)
Clarke et al (2019: 248) make the point that community gardens have a reputation, built over many decades, of ‘providing a community space during various socio-economic stressors’.
In Australia, this has included their role during the Great Depression of the 1930s. |
Mitigation
Home and community gardens also have a role to play in terms of climate change mitigation. This refers to the steps people can take in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Growers assist with mitigation by adopting and applying methods that include:
Mitigation is a topic worth exploring in greater detail in a study of its own.
Home and community gardens also have a role to play in terms of climate change mitigation. This refers to the steps people can take in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Growers assist with mitigation by adopting and applying methods that include:
- Sequestration of existing atmospheric carbon, especially through their plantings
- Decreasing new greenhouse gas emissions through, for example, improved energy efficiency
- For those living in large urban areas, playing a supporting role in re-configuring urban lifestyles toward higher levels of sustainability, for example, through local food production initiatives.
Mitigation is a topic worth exploring in greater detail in a study of its own.
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4. Case studies
Case studies are presented that shed light on ways in which issues discussed earlier emerge through the experiences of community gardens. The three examples have been studied and documented in three states in Australia. |
Case Study 1: A mix of individual and community plots in a country town
Newstead is a small town about 110 km northeast of Melbourne. Its population has been increasing steadily since the early 1980s, and many newcomers are retirees. A Community Garden was established in 2007 with support from a non-government organisation that has as its mission to coordinate and support community projects (Biodiversity International 2018).
The Community Garden consists of a mix of individual plots and community plots deliberately designed to ensure a wide diversity of crops and varieties, as well as gardening strategies. Regular workshops help to broaden participants’ experience and knowledge of gardening and nutrition. Shared meals in the garden are another avenue for building interest and participation and widening knowledge of nutrition and food preparation.
The Community Gardens is also viewed from the stance of adaptation to climate change, and this includes the lessons it provides regarding more efficient use of water. The community has become interested in researching the variety of Indigenous foods common to the area before European settlement. Informally, the garden attracts visitors from elsewhere in Australia and other countries, many of whom express an interest in creating similar gardens in their home communities.
Newstead is a small town about 110 km northeast of Melbourne. Its population has been increasing steadily since the early 1980s, and many newcomers are retirees. A Community Garden was established in 2007 with support from a non-government organisation that has as its mission to coordinate and support community projects (Biodiversity International 2018).
The Community Garden consists of a mix of individual plots and community plots deliberately designed to ensure a wide diversity of crops and varieties, as well as gardening strategies. Regular workshops help to broaden participants’ experience and knowledge of gardening and nutrition. Shared meals in the garden are another avenue for building interest and participation and widening knowledge of nutrition and food preparation.
The Community Gardens is also viewed from the stance of adaptation to climate change, and this includes the lessons it provides regarding more efficient use of water. The community has become interested in researching the variety of Indigenous foods common to the area before European settlement. Informally, the garden attracts visitors from elsewhere in Australia and other countries, many of whom express an interest in creating similar gardens in their home communities.
Key lessons learned from this initiative (Biodiversity International 2018):
- Local participation in planning and implementation is a key for success. This includes having democratic community practices at all stages of the process.
- Applied learning opportunities arise from shared social activities in addition to the shared garden work.
- The support and involvement of different levels of government and the non-government sector is needed to engage a wider range of stakeholders.
- Demands on volunteers’ time can make coordination and administration difficult.
- The costs of water and rent for land must be met every year.
photo - Daintry Gerrand
Case study 2: Hilton Harvest Community Garden
Based in Fremantle WA, the Hilton Harvest Community Garden is a community initiative that was from the outset driven by a local desire to strengthen community resilience in the context of climate change and peak oil. Working together with the City of Fremantle and the Department of Education, the first gardens were established in 2010 (Heart Foundation Case Study).
Based in Fremantle WA, the Hilton Harvest Community Garden is a community initiative that was from the outset driven by a local desire to strengthen community resilience in the context of climate change and peak oil. Working together with the City of Fremantle and the Department of Education, the first gardens were established in 2010 (Heart Foundation Case Study).
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In the decade that followed, the public open space grew into a mix of communal and rented garden beds, a community orchard, a ‘chook ship’, and an asparagus garden. Based on seed funding provided by the WA Department of Local Government and Communities, a propagation nursery was established. This nursery operates as a social enterprise business model, providing economic value through commercial income via seedling sales.
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Hilton Harvest established a Bush Tucker Garden as part of their annual NAIDOC celebrations in 2012. A variety of nutritious and medicinal native plants are grown, and these provide edible roots, leaves, flowers, seeds and fruits. In addition to reflecting cultural acknowledgement and awareness, the Bush Tucker Garden is used as an education tool for the community. In addition, the Community Garden has regular programs and events to cater for a variety of audiences.
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The Hilton Garden views its overriding objective as ‘community building and education, anchored in sustainability’. Several ‘values’ contribute to this outcome:
- Health value - such as providing nutritional knowledge of native and other healthy foods, and opportunities to consume them
- Economic value - for example through the operation of its social enterprise, the nursery
- Environmental value - organic garden principles, composting, water-wise initiatives, and providing a haven for native plants in the Bush Tucker Garden
- Social value - through its promotion of social interaction, community collaboration and participation, as well as the impact it has on the neighbourhood and wider Perth community
- Use value - the garden acts as a community hub and meeting place, and hosts educational and participatory programs and activities. Its value is reflected in the voice that the garden provides for community members to raise awareness of local and relevant issues.
photo: Ron Woods
Case Study 3: Community gardens in Adelaide
Researchers studied the more than 50 community gardens that currently operate in Adelaide in order to address the question: Are community gardens a pathway to community resilience? Based on the findings from this study, the authors conclude that community gardens can help build community resilience and social cohesion in the face of various threats, including climate change.
Researchers studied the more than 50 community gardens that currently operate in Adelaide in order to address the question: Are community gardens a pathway to community resilience? Based on the findings from this study, the authors conclude that community gardens can help build community resilience and social cohesion in the face of various threats, including climate change.
The study summarised the value of the gardens on the basis of themes, several of which are listed, together with selected quotes from the interviews conducted as part of the research:
- The social side - ‘...you’re starting at the premise of looking for some space to do some gardening and what we actually discover is the community side of it.’
- Doing something about climate change and food security - ‘...I think for me even though this is just a very small step for me it feels like a step in the right direction...the building of a stronger community will stand us in good stead whatever the future holds.’
- Trusted source of organic produce - ‘We trust our food sources’; ‘If you have diversity in the garden you don’t need chemicals’.
- Sharing with friends and family - ‘...then we share, like when we have snow peas or something so we all share that…’
- An option for those without backyard gardens - ‘You don’t get many people who are avid gardeners in today’s society because they haven’t got time and they haven’t got room and they have these big houses on small blocks’.
4. Conclusion
In Australia and internationally, home and community gardening practices provide evidence that community resilience exists, and that it can be strengthened.
Resilience emerges at the social level through gardeners' active participation in their local communities, and through cultivating healthy diets and lifestyles. These may not be conscious goals. They emerge when growers are doing what they love doing best - growing, harvesting, marketing, and sharing.
In Australia and internationally, home and community gardening practices provide evidence that community resilience exists, and that it can be strengthened.
Resilience emerges at the social level through gardeners' active participation in their local communities, and through cultivating healthy diets and lifestyles. These may not be conscious goals. They emerge when growers are doing what they love doing best - growing, harvesting, marketing, and sharing.
Resilience can be strengthened through active programs of bringing gardeners together - which lies at the heart of community gardening - and also through learning and sharing (for example workshops and demonstration gardens), and the development of local leadership. Such activities could contribute to the emergence and sustaining of networks that often extend beyond the local community.
Environmental resilience is promoted in those areas where growers are active due to the role small-scale gardens collectively collectively play in:
Environmental resilience is promoted in those areas where growers are active due to the role small-scale gardens collectively collectively play in:
- Delivering 'ecosystem services' that keep the whole ecology going, such as the provision of food, the cycling of nutrients, photosynthesis, and pollination
- Protecting and enhancing biodiversity
- Better managing water through practices such as rainwater harvesting
- Enriching soils through practices such as organic waste composting
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There is a need for more accessible case studies focusing specifically on home and community gardeners’ resilience and adaptation to climate change. Examples of good practice could be sought out, researched, and written up, with case studies being made available on platforms including social media.
MidCoast Growers Network can be a source for locally-relevant information and community building for all growers in the region. |
photo: Brett Cooper
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References
Albert, S., Bronen, R., Tooler, N., Leon, J., Yee, D., Ash, J., Boseto, D. and Grinham, A., 2018, Heading for the hills: Climate-driven community relocations in the Solomon Islands and Alaska provide insight for a 1.5C future. Regional Environmental Change, 18: 2261-2271.
Aldrich, D.P., 2018, The right way to build resilience to climate change. Current History, January 2018, pp. 16-21.
Anderson, E.C., Egerer, M.H., Fouch, N., Clarke, M. and Davidson, M.J., 2019, Comparing community garden typologies of Baltimore, Chicago and New York City (USA) to understand potential implication for socio-ecological services. Urban Ecosystems, 22: 671-681.
Biodiversity International, 2018, Case studies: Community Gardens Australia, http://www.b4fn.org/case-studies/case-studies/community-gardens/, accessed January 2020.
Buchan, R., Clutier, D., Friedman, A. and Ostry, A., 2015, Local food system planning: The problem, conceptual issues and policy tools for local government planners. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 24(1): 1-23.
Burton, P., Lyons, K., Richards, C.., Amati, M., Rose, N., Des Fours, L., Pires, V. and Barclay, R., 2013, Urban food security, urban resilience and climate change. National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Gold Coast.
Chan, J., 2014, Community gardens as urban social-ecological refuges: Case studies in Vienna, Austria, Lincoln, Nebraska, and New York City (PhD dissertation). ProQuest LLC, Ann Arbor MI.
Clarke, M., Davidson, M., Egerer, M., Anderson, E. and Fouch, N., 2019, The underutilized role of community gardens in improving cities’ adaptation to climate change: A review. People, Place and Policy, 12(3): 241-251.
Clarke, L.W., 2014, The biodiversity and direct ecosystem services and disservices of urban gardens (PhD dissertation). ProQuesst LLC, Ann Arbor MI.
Climate Council, 2016, On the frontline: Climate change and rural communities. Climate Council of Australia Limited.
Colman, A., 2017, Community and home gardening develop lifelong health habits. Parks and Recreation, August 2017, pp. 34-35.
Cregg, B., Gardening in a changing climate, Fine Gardening, Issue 176, https://www.finegardening.com/article/gardening-in-a-changing-climate
Fox, M., 2016, Climate change gardening in Australia, Climate Gardens: Gardening in a changing climate, http://www.myclimatechangegarden.com/blog/climate-change-gardening-in-australia-2
Greenbelt Foundation and the Royal Botanical Gardens, 2018, Gardening in a changing climate, Greenbelt Foundation, Ontario.
Halweil, B., 2003, The argument for local food, WorldWatch, May/June 2003, pp. 20-27.
Heart Foundation, n.d., Hilton Harvest Community Garden - Case study - Hilton Harvest Community Garden
Helen Macpherson Smith Trust, n.d., Community Gardens Manual: Community based gardening, Helen Macpherson Smith Trust and Sustainable Gardening Australia.
Jehlička, P., Daněk, P. and Vávra, J., 2019, Rethinking resilience: Home gardening, food sharing and everyday resistance. Canadian Journal of Development Studies, 40(4): 511-527.
Lowe, A., 2017, How do we keep gardening in the face of a changing climate? Australian Geographic, https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2017/02/gardening-in-the-face-of-climate-change/, accessed January 2020.
Mattson, E., Ostwald, M. and Nissanka S.P., 2018, What is good about Sri Lankan homegardens with regards to food security? A synthesis of the current scientific knowledge of a multifunctional land-use system, Agroforest Systems, 92: 1469-1484.
Maughan, C., Pedersen, R.L. and Pitt, H., 2018, The problems, promise and pragmatism of community food growing, Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 33(6): 497-502.
McVey, D., Nash, R. and Stansbie, P., 2018, The motivations and experiences of community garden participants in Edinburgh, Scotland. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 5(1): 40-56.
Nkrumah, B., 2018, Edible backyards: Climate change and urban food (in)security in Africa. Agriculture and Food Security, 7:45.
Nursery-Bray, M., Parnell, E., Aankeny, R.A., Bray, H. and Rudd, D., 2014, Community gardens as pathways to community resilience? Reflections on a pilot study in Adelaide South Australia. South Australian Geographical Journal, 113: 13-28.
Okvat, H.A. and Zautra, A.J., 2011, Community gardening: A parsimonious path to individual, community and environmental resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 47: 374-387.
Stewart, A. and Bishop, A.B., 2015, The waterwise Australian native garden: A practical guide to garden design, plant selection and much more. Murdoch Books, Sydney.
Taylor, J.R. and Lovell, S.T., 2014, Urban home food gardens in the Global North: Research traditions and future directions. Agriculture and Human Values, 31: 285-305.
Albert, S., Bronen, R., Tooler, N., Leon, J., Yee, D., Ash, J., Boseto, D. and Grinham, A., 2018, Heading for the hills: Climate-driven community relocations in the Solomon Islands and Alaska provide insight for a 1.5C future. Regional Environmental Change, 18: 2261-2271.
Aldrich, D.P., 2018, The right way to build resilience to climate change. Current History, January 2018, pp. 16-21.
Anderson, E.C., Egerer, M.H., Fouch, N., Clarke, M. and Davidson, M.J., 2019, Comparing community garden typologies of Baltimore, Chicago and New York City (USA) to understand potential implication for socio-ecological services. Urban Ecosystems, 22: 671-681.
Biodiversity International, 2018, Case studies: Community Gardens Australia, http://www.b4fn.org/case-studies/case-studies/community-gardens/, accessed January 2020.
Buchan, R., Clutier, D., Friedman, A. and Ostry, A., 2015, Local food system planning: The problem, conceptual issues and policy tools for local government planners. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 24(1): 1-23.
Burton, P., Lyons, K., Richards, C.., Amati, M., Rose, N., Des Fours, L., Pires, V. and Barclay, R., 2013, Urban food security, urban resilience and climate change. National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Gold Coast.
Chan, J., 2014, Community gardens as urban social-ecological refuges: Case studies in Vienna, Austria, Lincoln, Nebraska, and New York City (PhD dissertation). ProQuest LLC, Ann Arbor MI.
Clarke, M., Davidson, M., Egerer, M., Anderson, E. and Fouch, N., 2019, The underutilized role of community gardens in improving cities’ adaptation to climate change: A review. People, Place and Policy, 12(3): 241-251.
Clarke, L.W., 2014, The biodiversity and direct ecosystem services and disservices of urban gardens (PhD dissertation). ProQuesst LLC, Ann Arbor MI.
Climate Council, 2016, On the frontline: Climate change and rural communities. Climate Council of Australia Limited.
Colman, A., 2017, Community and home gardening develop lifelong health habits. Parks and Recreation, August 2017, pp. 34-35.
Cregg, B., Gardening in a changing climate, Fine Gardening, Issue 176, https://www.finegardening.com/article/gardening-in-a-changing-climate
Fox, M., 2016, Climate change gardening in Australia, Climate Gardens: Gardening in a changing climate, http://www.myclimatechangegarden.com/blog/climate-change-gardening-in-australia-2
Greenbelt Foundation and the Royal Botanical Gardens, 2018, Gardening in a changing climate, Greenbelt Foundation, Ontario.
Halweil, B., 2003, The argument for local food, WorldWatch, May/June 2003, pp. 20-27.
Heart Foundation, n.d., Hilton Harvest Community Garden - Case study - Hilton Harvest Community Garden
Helen Macpherson Smith Trust, n.d., Community Gardens Manual: Community based gardening, Helen Macpherson Smith Trust and Sustainable Gardening Australia.
Jehlička, P., Daněk, P. and Vávra, J., 2019, Rethinking resilience: Home gardening, food sharing and everyday resistance. Canadian Journal of Development Studies, 40(4): 511-527.
Lowe, A., 2017, How do we keep gardening in the face of a changing climate? Australian Geographic, https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2017/02/gardening-in-the-face-of-climate-change/, accessed January 2020.
Mattson, E., Ostwald, M. and Nissanka S.P., 2018, What is good about Sri Lankan homegardens with regards to food security? A synthesis of the current scientific knowledge of a multifunctional land-use system, Agroforest Systems, 92: 1469-1484.
Maughan, C., Pedersen, R.L. and Pitt, H., 2018, The problems, promise and pragmatism of community food growing, Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 33(6): 497-502.
McVey, D., Nash, R. and Stansbie, P., 2018, The motivations and experiences of community garden participants in Edinburgh, Scotland. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 5(1): 40-56.
Nkrumah, B., 2018, Edible backyards: Climate change and urban food (in)security in Africa. Agriculture and Food Security, 7:45.
Nursery-Bray, M., Parnell, E., Aankeny, R.A., Bray, H. and Rudd, D., 2014, Community gardens as pathways to community resilience? Reflections on a pilot study in Adelaide South Australia. South Australian Geographical Journal, 113: 13-28.
Okvat, H.A. and Zautra, A.J., 2011, Community gardening: A parsimonious path to individual, community and environmental resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 47: 374-387.
Stewart, A. and Bishop, A.B., 2015, The waterwise Australian native garden: A practical guide to garden design, plant selection and much more. Murdoch Books, Sydney.
Taylor, J.R. and Lovell, S.T., 2014, Urban home food gardens in the Global North: Research traditions and future directions. Agriculture and Human Values, 31: 285-305.
Benefits of Gardening: What does the literature say?
What are the demonstrated benefits of gardens and gardening? A review of recent literature gives us the confidence to conclude that gardening indeed has many benefits. It contributes to local food production, provides spaces where birds, bees, butterflies and other wildlife can flourish, promotes community building, adds to each gardener’s health and wellbeing, and much more. In this, the first of our research reports, Ron Woods explores what the literature says about the demonstrable benefits of gardening.
First, some definitions
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Drawing on the literature, home gardens can be described as ‘complex, multi-layer systems of trees, shrubs, and crops around homesteads’ (Clarke 2014: 1). Home gardens refer most commonly to backyards or front yards attached to a private house that are ‘partially or completely cultivated by an individual or family’ (Aerts, Dewaelheyns and Achten 2016). In urban areas, you can also find rooftop vegetable farms, vegetables grown in containers on windowsills or balconies, pavement gardens, and others.
Here's a definition that you could use in perhaps a more formal setting and which already hints at the benefits of gardening: |
Greens by Daintry Gerrand
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'Homegarden systems are production models that combine natural ecological functions with the socioeconomic wellbeing of the families that maintain them.' (Mattson et al 2018: 1470)
Gloucester Community Garden (photo: Pat Burrows)
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Community gardens are plots of land cultivated collectively by a group of people (Aerts et al 2016). For these gardens to succeed, local residents need to volunteer their time to contribute to the community-based, collaborative efforts to grow food.
For community gardens to be successful over the long term, leadership and active participation is essential (Okvat and Zautra 2011). When plots of land are subdivided into smaller parcels that are assigned to individuals or families, they can also be called ‘allotment gardens’. |
Home and community gardens are examples of local food production, which is characterised by ‘a short supply chain between the production of raw food product and the consumers within a geographical area’ (Buchan, Clutier, Friedman and Ostry 2015: 5). This geographical area is generally understood by the consumers to be their local community.
The shorter supply chains, and the localised nature of production means that home and community gardens can improve household and community food security by 'making diverse and nutritious foods readily accessible to household residents and community members' (Taylor and Lovell 2014: 289).
The shorter supply chains, and the localised nature of production means that home and community gardens can improve household and community food security by 'making diverse and nutritious foods readily accessible to household residents and community members' (Taylor and Lovell 2014: 289).
Benefits of gardens and gardening
Many writers (Taylor and Lovell 2014; Colman 2017; Buchan et al. 2015; Sago et al 2017) base their conclusions on research evidence when they refer to the benefits of gardens and gardening:
Many writers (Taylor and Lovell 2014; Colman 2017; Buchan et al. 2015; Sago et al 2017) base their conclusions on research evidence when they refer to the benefits of gardens and gardening:
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Gardens foster in people a love and appreciation of nature.
Gardens promote food security in various ways, for example, by providing access to healthy food for low-income families who cannot easily access or afford fresh produce. Gardeners help to protect and promote local biodiversity. |
Enriching the soil with as much organic matter as possible (photo: Marnie Johnson)
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Collectively, home gardens contribute positively to the carbon cycle through the carbon sequestration that occurs when they enrich their soils with organic material.
Gardens provide opportunities for social engagement within communities, and also between communities. They provide linkages between urban and rural households. |
Focusing in particular on health benefits, an analysis of the medical evidence (Soga and colleagues 2017) found that gardening's positive impacts range from reductions in depression, anxiety and Body Mass Index (BMI), to increases in quality of life and sense of community. Actively working in the garden helps to reduce stress, and promotes heart health and brain function. Psychologists have found that gardening is 'healing in the aftermath of trauma' (Phillips 2021). There is evidence that, following property destruction after a bushfire, 'creating a garden can be an important part of the process of recovery and reconnecting' (Cranney 2020).
Magnificent maize (photo: Marnie Johnson)
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Community gardens give neighbourhood residents greater control over the food system, enhancing local food sovereignty, food security, and community self-reliance.
Community gardens can be used as spaces to educate young people about growing healthy and sustainable produce. This can contribute to them developing lifelong healthy habits. It has been measured, for example, that community gardeners on average consume more servings of fresh fruit and vegetables each day than non-gardeners (Colman 2017). |
Gardens provide services
Research and debates on gardening draw on insights relating to ecology. At its most basic level, there is the recognition that people are reliant on natural processes to provide the essentials of life. These benefits have been termed 'ecosystem services' - what nature provides just by doing what it does. In terms of the benefits of natural processes, ecosystem services can be clustered into four kinds (Clarke 2014):
Research and debates on gardening draw on insights relating to ecology. At its most basic level, there is the recognition that people are reliant on natural processes to provide the essentials of life. These benefits have been termed 'ecosystem services' - what nature provides just by doing what it does. In terms of the benefits of natural processes, ecosystem services can be clustered into four kinds (Clarke 2014):
- Provisioning - essentials such as food, water and timber
- Supporting - photosynthesis occurs, enabling life to capture the energy from the sun; nutrients are constantly recycled; based on interactions between plants and animals, pollination occurs
- Regulating - natural processes and cycles, all of which have an impact on us
- Resonating - we appreciate nature - recreationally, aaesthetically, spiritually, culturally
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Although they are cultivated spaces, gardens also contribute 'ecosystem services' such as those described above.
In their own small ways, all gardens contribute to the cycling of nutrients, help to regulate flows of water, and attract pollinators. Taken as a whole, the cultivated gardens of urban areas in particular play a key role in regulating the flows of organics in built up areas, and preventing kitchen and garden waste from entering landfill (see Projects). |
Attracting pollinators (photo: Daintry Gerrand)
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As is the case with so many aspects of the interaction between ourselves and our natural environments, gardens can also create problems. Ecosystem disservices arise when specific environments turn out to be harmful to human health and wellbeing (Clarke 2014: 3). Potential ecosystem disservices that can be linked to gardening practices include:
To ensure that the benefits of gardens (the ecosystem services they provide) outweigh the harms (the ecosystem disservices they provide), the key is to find ways to accentuate the positive benefits of gardens, while taking consistent steps to minimise the negative. For example, many growers are keenly focused on not planting species that may become ‘garden escapees’ and which may contribute down the track to the country’s ongoing problems with weeds. Many growers include plants in their garden that are particularly attractive to pollinators such as bees and butterflies.
- The introduction of invasive weeds.
- Bringing about conditions that lead to an increase in arthropod pests.
- Increased exposure to trace metals, due especially to historical contamination of urban soils.
To ensure that the benefits of gardens (the ecosystem services they provide) outweigh the harms (the ecosystem disservices they provide), the key is to find ways to accentuate the positive benefits of gardens, while taking consistent steps to minimise the negative. For example, many growers are keenly focused on not planting species that may become ‘garden escapees’ and which may contribute down the track to the country’s ongoing problems with weeds. Many growers include plants in their garden that are particularly attractive to pollinators such as bees and butterflies.
What are some of the ways you've tried to maximise the 'ecosystem services' your garden provides, and to minimise its potential 'ecosystem disservices'?
Local food production
If you are using your garden to produce food, there is some evidence that local food production has distinct benefits as well (Buchan et al. 2015; Halweil 2003). The yields from more intensive horticultural and agricultural methods are estimated to be up to 13 times more than what is typically achieved on rural farms. More intensive horticulture of this nature may lead to slower expansion of the land that is used for farming, thus conserving more of the open spaces for natural systems.
If you are using your garden to produce food, there is some evidence that local food production has distinct benefits as well (Buchan et al. 2015; Halweil 2003). The yields from more intensive horticultural and agricultural methods are estimated to be up to 13 times more than what is typically achieved on rural farms. More intensive horticulture of this nature may lead to slower expansion of the land that is used for farming, thus conserving more of the open spaces for natural systems.
Local food (photo: Marnie Johnson)
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Due to shorter distances between producers and consumers, a reduction occurs in the use of fossil fuels and their associated greenhouse gas emissions. Associated with this is a reduction in the generation of waste going to landfill, particularly food packaging.
All of this contributes to stronger local economies, and to a healthier population resulting from greater consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables, and reduced consumption of fat- and sugar-rich processed foods (Buchan et al. 2015). |
References
Aerts, R., Dewaelheyns, V.and and Achten, W., 2016, Potential ecosystem services of urban agriculture: A review, PeerJ Preprints, https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.2286v1.
Buchan, R., Clutier, D., Friedman, A. and Ostry, A., 2015, Local food system planning: The problem, conceptual issues and policy tools for local government planners. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 24(1): 1-23.
Clarke, L.W., 2014, The biodiversity and direct ecosystem services and disservices of urban gardens (PhD dissertation). ProQuesst LLC, Ann Arbor MI.
Colman, A., 2017, Community and home gardening develop lifelong health habits. Parks and Recreation, August 2017, pp. 34-35.
Cranney, K., 2020, Five tips for replanting your garden after bushfires, CSIROscope, 31
January 2020.
Halweil, B., 2003, The argument for local food. WorldWatch, May/June 2003, pp. 20-27.
Mattson, E., Ostwald, M. and Nissanka S.P., 2018, What is good about Sri Lankan homegardens with regards to food security? A synthesis of the current scientific knowledge of a multifunctional land-use system, Agroforest Systems, 92: 1469-1484.
Okvat, H.A. and Zautra, A.J., 2011, Community gardening: A parsimonious path to individual, community and environmental resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 47: 374-387.
Phillips, S., 2021, 5 reasons gardening can help heal trauma, Psychology Today, https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/speaking-about-trauma/202103/5-reasons-gardening-can-help-heal-trauma
Soga, M., Gaston, K.J. and Yamaurac, Y., 2017, Gardening is beneficial for health: A meta-analysis, Preventive Medicine Reports, 5: 92–99, doi: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.11.007
Taylor, J.R. and Lovell, S.T., 2014, Urban home food gardens in the Global North: Research traditions and future directions. Agriculture and Human Values, 31: 285-305.
Thomson, R., 2018, Gardening for health: a regular dose of gardening, Clinical Medicine (Royal College of Physicians London), 18(3): 201–205, doi: 10.7861/clinmedicine.18-3-201.
Aerts, R., Dewaelheyns, V.and and Achten, W., 2016, Potential ecosystem services of urban agriculture: A review, PeerJ Preprints, https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.2286v1.
Buchan, R., Clutier, D., Friedman, A. and Ostry, A., 2015, Local food system planning: The problem, conceptual issues and policy tools for local government planners. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 24(1): 1-23.
Clarke, L.W., 2014, The biodiversity and direct ecosystem services and disservices of urban gardens (PhD dissertation). ProQuesst LLC, Ann Arbor MI.
Colman, A., 2017, Community and home gardening develop lifelong health habits. Parks and Recreation, August 2017, pp. 34-35.
Cranney, K., 2020, Five tips for replanting your garden after bushfires, CSIROscope, 31
January 2020.
Halweil, B., 2003, The argument for local food. WorldWatch, May/June 2003, pp. 20-27.
Mattson, E., Ostwald, M. and Nissanka S.P., 2018, What is good about Sri Lankan homegardens with regards to food security? A synthesis of the current scientific knowledge of a multifunctional land-use system, Agroforest Systems, 92: 1469-1484.
Okvat, H.A. and Zautra, A.J., 2011, Community gardening: A parsimonious path to individual, community and environmental resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 47: 374-387.
Phillips, S., 2021, 5 reasons gardening can help heal trauma, Psychology Today, https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/speaking-about-trauma/202103/5-reasons-gardening-can-help-heal-trauma
Soga, M., Gaston, K.J. and Yamaurac, Y., 2017, Gardening is beneficial for health: A meta-analysis, Preventive Medicine Reports, 5: 92–99, doi: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.11.007
Taylor, J.R. and Lovell, S.T., 2014, Urban home food gardens in the Global North: Research traditions and future directions. Agriculture and Human Values, 31: 285-305.
Thomson, R., 2018, Gardening for health: a regular dose of gardening, Clinical Medicine (Royal College of Physicians London), 18(3): 201–205, doi: 10.7861/clinmedicine.18-3-201.
